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THE EAST BRANCH:
Draining over two hundred square miles of land, the East Branch of the Black River contains a variety of geologically unique features. A 10 mile stretch of the East Branch was considered for potential wild and scenic designation by the Ohio Department of Natural Resources (ODNR) in 1998. While the designation was not made, this stretch includes healthy warmwater habitat and riparian forests that span over 100 feet on each bank. 
This section of the tour highlights several significant issues for the watershed, including the impacts of urban sprawl in Avon and North Ridgeville on stormwater flooding, wetland mitigation in Caley Reserve, and riparian corridor improvement and alternative wastewater treatment options in Lodi. Also included on the tour are several naturally significant locations, including a virgin forest near the Indian Hollow Metropark, glacial end moraines near downtown Lodi, and boggy muckland soils south of Lodi. The watershed surrounding the East Branch includes a variety of changing uses, as urban sprawl pressure challenges the traditional farmland and open space that covers much of the drainage basin.
AVON/NORTH RIDGEVILLE FLOODING
Frequent flooding in the towns of Avon and North Ridgeville illustrate challenges in the Black River Watershed around stormwater issues. 
Floods are typically viewed as natural disasters rather than normal events in nature. Flooding occurs when water overflows the main channel of a river and saturates the flatter land above the banks, called a floodplain. While they are dry most of the time, flood plains are actually a part of the river channel, wet only during storm events or times of high precipitation. French Creek is a tributary of the Black River. The lowest flood plains in French Creek, where the growing towns of Avon and North Ridgeville are situated, regularly overflow 2 to 3 times a year. Flood plains at higher elevations that flood less frequently and are given classifications related to time intervals between floods. These flood events are commonly referred to as 25-, 50-, or 100-year floods and indicate the probability that a flood will occur in a given year. In other words, a 25-year flood has a 1/25 chance of happening. Development frequently occurs along flood plains where residents do not realize that they reside along the river’s channel.
The main factors that contribute to flooding are the volume of rain that falls over a given time period and the capacity of the land to absorb that rain. If land absorbs a small percentage of rainwater and that run-off flows into a restricted channel, then flooding will tend to occur. As forest or farmland is replaced with asphalt and turf, soil loses its permeability and the volume of stormwater that rushes into a stream increases. French Creek provides a good case study for the effects of increasing development in the Black River Watershed. North Ridgeville and Avon, two of the fastest growing cities in Lorain County, both sit along French Creek. A close review of flooding along the creek demonstrates the problems of storm water management in an area experiencing rapid development. Three contributing factors for this flooding include: the slope of the land, soil types, and changes in land use over the last decade.
The flat topography and soil types of the northern part of the watershed lead to regular flood events. Avon and North Ridgeville reside along the upper part of French Creek with flat topography shaped by the ancestral lakes preceding Lake Erie. There is a slope of .10 feet per 100 feet in Avon-a small rise in elevation by any standard. In North Ridgeville there is an even gentler slope as the elevation rises only 100 feet over the entire 25 square miles of the town. Downstream in Sheffield, French Creek runs through a deeper shale gorge where floodwaters are contained within steep valley walls. Common to much of the northern watershed, soils along French Creek are rich in clay and silt and are therefore difficult for rainwater to infiltrate.
Human development further disrupts normal flood patterns and increases the frequency and severity of flooding in Northeastern Ohio. Natural wetlands, trees, shrubs, and native grasses retain water and release it slowly. Since the recent settlement of the Black River Watershed, the protective vegetative strips along the river, called buffer or riparian zones, have been mostly removed, increasing the volume of surface water run-off. Many buffer zones and wetlands have been removed and replaced with agricultural, residential, or commercial development. Lorain County has lost over 50% of its original wetlands, dropping from 30% to 10 to 15% of the total land area. Along the river, farmers plant crops right up to the stream bank to maximize the amount of acreage in production. Similarly, developers and landowners will often install turf and build right up to the stream banks to maximize their use of the land.
The town of Avon exemplifies the rapid growth trend that is sweeping through many communities in Northeastern Ohio. Between 1991 and 1996, over 900 new residences, the highest in Lorain County, were constructed in Avon. As a corollary to this construction boom, Avon is one of the few places in Lorain County to gain population. The population increased by 20%, rising from 7,337 in 1990 to 8,197 in 1994, the largest increase in Lorain County.
Looking at a Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) map of Avon’s flood plains, the consequences of this rapid development become apparent. Almost all of the southeastern quarter of Avon lies within the 100-year flood plain of French Creek. The development boom that has swept through Avon is largely concentrated on this level land sandwiched between State Route 83 and the Cuyahoga County line. Many long-time residents of Avon can remember frequent floods where French Creek’s banks would expand close to a mile in length.
Part of the difficulty of flooding in Avon comes from the increase of impervious surface within the city. Another major contributor is increased development in North Ridgeville that sits upstream from Avon. Development in North Ridgeville imposes greater impacts on Avon as the stormwater volume magnifies as it moves downstream. The increased volume comes primarily from run-off from impervious surfaces such as roads, parking lots, buildings, and other features of the built environment. On a paved lot, 98% of the rainwater that hits the surface will immediately flow off as run-off. Unfortunately, most turf lawns are as impermeable as asphalt with compacted soils and low permeability.
Through a combination of soil type, land use, and rainfall, The Lorain County Soil and Water Conservation District has developed calculations for run-off volume resulting from development. This formula was applied to a 23-acre site in the Avon area where a commercial development was planned. As mature woodland with trees, shrubs and other vegetation, about 886,000 gallons per year flowed off of the site and into French Creek. As cropland, the same 23 acres contributes 1.2 million gallons per year. Finally, if the land is paved and turned into commercial or residential property, the run-off volume doubles, dumping almost 2 million gallons per year into French Creek. Given the rapid growth rate of Avon, this scenario is repeated across hundreds of acres of land, contributing to major flooding problems for Avon and downstream communities along the Black River.
The conventional engineering approach to handling stormwater is to increase the volume and velocity of water passing through a system. Widening or deepening channels or digging new channels expands volume. Velocity is increased by reducing the bends or meanders in a water system and lining it with an impermeable surface such as concrete or rip rap. This kind of system hastens the drainage of stormwater away from a given community. Unfortunately, as the case of Avon and North Ridgeville demonstrates, this approach has several limitations. First, North Ridgeville improved drainage in the late 1990’s by straightening channels and lining waterways with concrete. This solution, however, exacerbated flooding for their downstream neighbors in Avon. In addition to flooding, another problem with this approach is the further degradation of aquatic habitat. Stormwater surges increase sedimentation and erosion. In addition, rapid shifts in the volume of water can affect aquatic species. Greater aquatic ecosystem stability is achieved when stormwater is collected and percolates slowly into a river system, insuring a more even flow and fewer wide fluctuations in stream load. 
A more proactive solution to stormwater issues is to mimic the more natural drainage courses in the watershed. Before large-scale settlement, a vast network of wetlands and forests would absorb stormwater. Water would slowly percolate out of these systems, providing a more consistent stream flow and reducing the extremes of flooding and drought conditions. One recent development in North Ridgeville has taken a proactive approach to mimicking these more natural conditions. Houses being constructed on the property will be clustered closely together. This allows for more space to be devoted to open space. Over 50% of the property will be devoted to habitat and natural stormwater containment. A 10-acre wetland will form in a sandy embankment, absorbing stormwater and recreating native habitat conditions. While such housing developments are encouraging, current zoning and building codes do not support this kind of alternative development. As a consequence, the cost to a developer for incorporating these changes rises due to time delays and the expense in getting variances approved by city planning bodies. A more proactive zoning code could encourage preservation of open space and a better approach to stormwater management.
The solution to the problem of flooding in the Black River Watershed rests in three primary areas. First, there is a need for greater regional cooperation. Stormwater management must be addressed on a watershed-wide scale, involving all communities in a cooperative effort to address the problem. Second, municipalities can reduce the impacts of new development by encouraging developers to build more compact housing developments that have more open space and retention ponds and filter strips that provide habitat. Updates to zoning codes can provide essential support for enterprising developers willing to consider alternative approaches to subdivision design. Finally, future land use and development should mimic the native environmental conditions of the Black River Watershed. Many of the wetlands and heavily vegetated riparian corridors along the Black River have been destroyed. Wetlands and riparian zones serve as natural filters, cleaning water and absorbing high volumes of stormwater and releasing it slowly. The restoration of wetlands and riparian zones, in combination with the use of wet retention ponds and grass-filled overflow ditches, can begin to recapture some of the services once provided for free by nature.
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VIRGIN FOREST
Most standing woods in the Black River Watershed consist of secondary or tertiary growth. As the land around northern Ohio was settled in the late 1800’s, vast expanses of forest habitat were cleared of trees and burned to prepare for agricultural production. Many of the hardwood trees, including oaks, walnuts, and maple, were used to build housing. These original trees can still be encountered in the frames and wood floors of historical houses in areas like Elyria or Oberlin. 
While agriculture and housing utilized much of the wood in the area, a large percentage of harvested lumber fueled the burgeoning railroad industry that was making its way west at the end of the 19th century. Swampland timber was used to build railroad ties, trestles, and provide fuel for trains. In the state of Ohio alone, trains consumed about one million cords annually. To meet this large demand and supplement their incomes, many farmers cut timber and used the capital provided by the railroad industry to drain and remake cutover swamplands into cropland. By 1885, many of the elms and ashes that once dominated the area billowed out of the smokestacks of trains as they continued their westward movement beyond the Mississippi River.
This large-scale clearing of forestland has impacted the integrity of forest ecosystems throughout the watershed. Wooded patches are commonly encountered in areas where agriculture has recently been abandoned or where tree lines or windbreaks between properties were established. The assembly and distribution of trees, shrubs, and understory wildflowers indicates both the age and the ecological status of a forest. Forests that have recently emerged on an old agricultural field will typically be dominated by a small number of tree species, including sugar maples, beech, or oaks. The trees will often grow in dense stands with hundreds of species approximately the same size. Because one tree species dominates the area, these recently emergent forests lack a strong lower canopy of shrubs and understory flowers. Hundreds of trees at the same age and height tend to blanket the forest in shade and crowd out other species, reducing the diversity of other species typically encountered in an undisturbed forest.
Mature forests in the Black River Watershed will tend to have four layers or canopies that each includes different plant communities. The first step in determining the overall health of a forest is to investigate the quality and diversity of wildflowers in the forest’s understory. These flowers often emerge in early spring before the foliage in the upper canopy has emerged and shaded lower species. Large patches of mayapple, jack-in-the-pulpit, spring beauties, or wild ginseng will indicate a more healthy forest environment. Such shrubs as spice bush or jewelweed tend to occupy the second canopy of a forest above the wildflowers. Smaller trees, such as flowering dogwood, ironwood or hop-hornbeam tend to proliferate in the third layer of a forest canopy. So-called “climax species” indicate a fully developed forest system. These trees fill up the top canopy of the forest, growing up to 80 or 90 feet at full height. These trees include varieties of elm, ash, maple, oak, beech, cottonwood, and tulip trees. The exact assemblies of species will vary according to conditions such as soil types, drainage, and topography.
About one mile south of the Indian Hollow Metropark (on Indian Hollow Road) is a 40-acre patch of virgin, first-growth forest. This patch represents a “core reserve,” an area of relatively undisturbed forest that can provide a template for forest restoration efforts throughout the county. These woods possess several characteristics of a healthy forest ecosystem. There are four well-developed and distinct canopies. The understory in the forest is well developed, lush, and biologically diverse. Mature trees, such as red oak and pin oak, are well distributed and not densely packed. Several of the trees sampled had a trunk circumference of 15-20 feet. 
Even fallen trees provide unique habitats for insects and fungus who use the decaying wood as a food source and help to speed decomposition. These fallen trees, once decomposed, provide a rich mat of organic matter to support future growth. Within the woods, vegetation tends to vary greatly, depending upon drainage conditions. In several areas, water tends to collect in drainage sinks (large low elevation areas) or large holes left behind by fallen trees. In these areas, water collects and supports more water-tolerant species, including pin oaks, ash trees, and the threatened marsh marigold. These wet areas also provide important habitat for salamanders and frogs. This virgin forest patch was recently acquired by the Lorain County Metroparks, providing an essential asset for understanding the composition of forest communities in the area and offering a benchmark by which to judge future forest restoration efforts in the watershed.
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CALEY MITIGATION BANK
One driving force behind the restoration and reintroduction of wetland habitat in the Black River Watershed is wetlands mitigation. In recent years, over 200 acres of wetland have been introduced to several Lorain County Metroparks, including Sandy Ridge, Carlisle, and Caley Reservations. Mitigation banking comes from provisions in the Clean Water Act Amendments of 1987, which call for a “no-net loss of wetlands policy.” Developers or landowners are restricted from destroying or draining wetlands that exist on their properties. In some cases, wetland drainage has been permitted only if the landowner offsets the impact by replacing the lost wetlands with the reintroduction of wetlands at another location, desirably within the same watershed. Developers purchase “credits” in a mitigation bank. These credits support the compensation of another landowner for installing wetland habitat on their property. Mitigation banks can be set up in areas that contain “hydric soils,” which indicate a history of wetlands. Hydric soils form when an area is submerged in water for all or a portion of each year. While there is some question as to whether or not wetlands that are reintroduced are always of the same quality as those that are drained, mitigation banking represents one strategy for improving large tracts of wetland habitat.
One such mitigation bank was formed at the Caley Reservation, managed by the Lorain County Metroparks. Wellington Creek, a tributary of the Black River, flows north from Wellington through this 487-acre park located in Pittsfield Township. The park features a wide range of ecosystems and recreational opportunities. Two large ponds near the entrance of the park are available for fishing. A thick riparian forest hugs the banks Wellington Creek with mature stands of cottonwood, boxelder, sycamore, walnut, elm, willow, and maple occupying much of the floodplain. About ½ a mile past a cable bridge that spans Wellington Creek is the Caley mitigation bank. 
Occupying about 30 acres, this bank consists of a considerable stretch of wetland habitat, usually saturated year round. The wetlands were introduced in an abandoned farm field and are surrounded by an abundance of old field wildflowers such as goldenrod, purple aster, and some exotic plants such as queen anne’s lace. These wetlands provide an ideal site for seeing a variety of birds, including ducks, geese, herons, egrets, sandpipers, kingfishers, and warblers.
Caley Reservation is named after John Caley whose will, dated 1960, promised 321 acres of farm and woodland to the National Wildlife Federation Endowment. The will stipulated that the land be managed as a site to benefit wildlife. The National Wildlife Federation yielded stewardship responsibility for the property to the Ohio Department of Natural Resources (ODNR) in 1970. The ODNR worked out a management agreement with the Lorain County Metroparks to enhance local stewardship opportunities.
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LODI RESTORATION
Another river restoration project is planned for the Village of Lodi in Medina County. The East Branch of the Black River and some of its headwater tributaries reside within the boundaries of the city. Historically, the surrounding land was used for production agriculture and some of the streams were channelized to improve field drainage and to control flooding. The legacy of channelization is still evident. Some entrenched stream segments are no longer connected to their flood plains. With no natural flood control, the rapidly flowing water races through deeper-than-normal river channels and causes severe erosion problems.
The proposed restoration efforts began with permit violations of the Lodi wastewater treatment plant. As a part of a consent agreement between the Attorney General on behalf of the Ohio EPA, the village of Lodi agreed to provide funds to the Medina Soil and Water Conservation District (SWCD) to restore a section of the East Branch of the Black River. Although this project was started, a more complete restoration was not immediately possible due to the cost. Over time, wetland mitigation money from a Lorain County development added to the restoration funds and extra restoration components were added to the plan. These components involved lowering the stream banks which would allow for a re-connection of the stream to its flood plain and a reduction in the rate of stream flows.
Then, early in 2000, the Ohio EPA’s Division of Environmental and Financial Assistance (DEFA) unveiled a new Water Resource Restoration Sponsor Program (WRRSP). This program significantly increases the scope of work possible and starts with a loan from DEFA to the Lodi wastewater treatment facility for an expansion and upgrade of the plant. The WRRSP is an attachment to the loan application. When the loan is awarded, Lodi can direct interest payments from the loan to sponsor a restoration project. In Lodi, the WRRSP would potentially add $2 million to the funds available for the restoration of river segments.
The new, multifaceted plan now calls for land, wetland, and riparian corridor enhancement and preservation as well as the construction of new wetlands and riparian corridors. Using WRRSP funds, several parcels of land are to be purchased by the Medina County Park District. One parcel, 18 acres in size, will preserve one complete mile of stream and riparian corridor on the West Fork and allow for future restoration efforts aimed at addressing extreme entrenchment and stream bank erosion problems. Another WRRSP parcel purchase by the Park District, coupled with land already owned by the Village, would preserve and protect a mile of stream and riparian corridor along the East Fork. Also in this area, stream bank restoration and floodplain alterations will be implemented to provide flood plain acreage to reduce erosion and stabilize the East Fork channel. Within this parcel, a 10-acre wetland will be created to add to habitat quality and process effluent from the upgraded waste water treatment plant. Finally, a 15-acre wetland, located on land currently owned by the Village, will be enhanced, buffered and preserved.
The restoration plan, as it is implemented, will show how diverse interest groups can work together to bring about positive and lasting environmental changes in a focused area. The plan is being developed through a community partnership that includes: the Village of Lodi, Envirotech consultants, the Ohio EPA’s Division of Surface Water and Division of Environmental and Financial Assistance, Medina County Park District, Medina SWCD, members of the Black River Remedial Action Plan Coordinating Committee, and the Ohio Department of Natural Resources.
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LODI END MORAINE
Just at the northeastern edge of the City of Lodi is the Lodi Community Park. Similar in its natural significance to Cascade Park, this park includes important geological features right near an urban center. The northern and southern boundaries of the park are flanked by two terminal end moraines which travel upward about 80 feet from the flat bottom land of the park. A tributary to the East Branch of the Black River travels through the park, traveling east to west-one of the only such tributaries in the watershed to travel in an easterly direction. The bottom of the stream is dotted with pieces of shale, sandstone, and assorted glacial materials from the lower portions of the end moraine.
The terminal moraines encountered in the Lodi park are remnants of the last glacial advance which ended about 25,000 years ago. At the edges, advancing glaciers act like large bulldozers, pushing collections of till materials into large piles called “end moraine.” End moraine contains a wide mixture of clay and sand, as well as large rocks and boulders. The end moraine indicates the extent of the Wisconsian glaciers. In the southern portion of Lorain County, the Black River flows through several glacial end moraines. These deposits are continuous over large distances, with some moraine ridges in the headwaters over a mile wide. They contain rolling hills that are not created by any visible surface water. 
These end moraines are named after the glacial events that created them. The Wabash, Fort Wayne, New Washington, Defiance and Spencer Moraines are all Wisconsian end moraines in the Black River Watershed. The Defiance and Spencer Moraines border the edge of the Watershed. Their hills in the Lodi area provide a major divide between the Great Lakes Basin and the Ohio River Watershed. To the south of this area, water eventually flows into the Ohio River. These end moraines often surround larger plains of lower elevation where “muckland” formed in the boggy, waterlogged conditions. The mucklands to the south of downtown Lodi are examples of this process.
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MUCKLAND
Directly south of the City of Lodi and the glacial end moraines that surround the community park, is a large expanse of muckland. This muckland is a product of geology and glaciation. The last glacial event was the Wisconsin advance, which occurred about 25,000 years ago. The glaciers created the terminal moraines evident in Lodi. The hillier terrain created by these moraines surrounded lower elevation areas. Here, water would tend to drain off of the moraines and become logged in large expanses called “mucklands.” 
Because water would stand for long periods of time, these mucklands attracted species typically encountered in bogs or prairie kettles. Peat moss would grow in these wet conditions. The thick root masses in peat moss would accumulate and decompose slowly, eventually creating a thick, springy mat of sphagnum moss. Other sedges and aquatic grasses would emerge in these saturated open conditions, as well as swamp forest species such as elm, ash, or pin oak. As these plants would either shed their leaves or die off, the organic matter that they would leave behind, accumulated in the water logged soils. Because decomposition of organic matter requires aerobic or oxygen-rich conditions, this material would decompose very slowly, eventually creating a thick boggy mat.
As areas in southern Lorain County were drained for agriculture, the water table descended rapidly. Areas such as the mucklands revealed large stretches of very black, organic-rich soils. Given drier conditions as a result of drainage, the moss and aquatic plants would recede, leaving behind the rich organic soil. Muck soils are often 20-30 feet thick. Dried out, the rich organic content of muckland creates a friable, loose soil rich in nutrients that can be ideal for crop growth. Referred to as “histosol,” these soils contain an organic matter content that can be as high as 80-90%. Most of the lake plain and glacial till soils in the Black River Watershed are mineral based, forming as a result of the sorting action of waves or the recession of glaciers. Muckland soils, by contrast, are not derived from parent minerals. These soils are biological in origin, consisting primarily of stored carbon from plants that have gone through a slow process of anaerobic (oxygen-absent) decomposition. 
Muck soils can be difficult for farming and must be managed very carefully to avoid degradation. Because of their high organic content, these soils can operate like sponges, absorbing large amounts of moisture and releasing it slowly. Because they tend to occur in areas defined by topography as drainage sinks, water logging can make it difficult for farming and operating large tractors. On the other hand, if conditions become too dry, muckland soil can experience severe degradation as a result of wind erosion. As particles dry, they become powdery and dispersed. Winds will carry these soil particles in large dusty clouds and, over time, will eat away at the rich layer of organic matter.
Mucklands define large expanses that contain highly organic soils. The central part of the Black River Watershed, defined by glacial till soils, contains remnant bogs or kettle holes that are defined by similar organic soils. One such bog, Camden Bog, lies about 10 miles west of Oberlin. Owned by the college, Camden Bog was created when a large hole formed in the ground and filled with glacial ice. As the glaciers expanded, the ice would be driven downward, expanding the hole. As the glaciers melted, these holes would fill with water and create a boggy environment much like those encountered in the mucklands, but on a smaller-scale. Bogs are not encountered in Lake Plain soils from Oberlin north. The wave action of the ancestral lakes that preceded Lake Erie sorted sand and clay materials which eventually filled in these bogs.
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